THE SECOND SAMNITE WAR - 326 to 304 BC (First Part)

What is cited as the second Samnite War was a period of weapons not entirely clear and vaguely described by Roman historians, but is certain that both peoples were aware, at the time, of competing for hegemony over Italy mainland. After the agreements signed in 341 b.C., Samnites and Romans passed through a period of peace and unity of purpose, even fighting together against the Latin peoples rebels (Latin War 340-338 BC) who were disagreed with the new state of affairs that two predominant peoples had discussed in the agreement signed. Although they had fought together, Romans and Samnites were feared each other, knowing their own strength and power demonstrated to fight the war.

For this reason the Romans, knowing that the objective was identical to the Samnites' one, that is the growth of their people and the annexation of new territories, sought to forge new alliances in the event of further conflicts going up in southern Campania at the slopes of Vesuvius. To neutralize the dominance of the Samnite colony of Teanum in the Campania plain, Romans founded nearby 334 b.C., the Latin colony of Cales and, in order to tighten the oversight of the Samnites in the southern of the peninsula, they huddled agreements with Alexander the Molossus of Taranto, who succeeded to Archidamus of Sparta.

Samnites felt increasingly encircled by a vise so well thought out so that in 328 BC had to suffer the shame of the founding of the colony of New Fregellae (the Volscan city was conquered and destroyed by the Samnites - Fregellae at present-day was located near Ceprano), on the left bank of the river Liri, which is the bank that the peace treaty signed between the two peoples should be made exclusively by the Samnites. They tried repeatedly, through diplomatic channels to stop activities to sign a new alliance that Rome was placed on trial, to block any of their threats but, given the many failed attempts, they too began to weave a network of alliances to counter the Roman intentions. At that time formed an alliance with some towns in Campania, mostly Oscan as Nuceria, Nola and Naples. This last was mainly Greek than Oscan and therefore be supposed that only the factions allied to the Samnites were Oscan.

In 327 BC the situation worsened with the death in battle against the Lucanians of Alexander the Molossus. The Samnites, freed from a threat that kept constantly on alert their armies in the south of the peninsula, also shook off the grip in which the Romans had them close by transferring part of the army in caudina area starting to also a growing trend in the territory of Campania.

In Naples, meanwhile faction Samnites seized power and an army of 6,000 soldiers had occupied the city. Soon, however, the Greek faction of the government of Naples clashed with Samnites elements, enough to begin to weave secret contacts with the Romans. The Senate of Urbe (Urbe = Rome - Editor's note) at the request of its Greek faction, sent south of Rome which still has all the troops, commanded by the consuls Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and Quintus Publilius Philo. The latter testified close of Ager Neapolitan awaiting the right moment to take action. Indeed, the Neapolitan leaders Carilao and Nymphio, the Principes Civitate, with a trick they were able to avert the Samnite garrison from the city, thus opening the gates to the Romans. The other consul Cornelius Lentulus, with action coverage, sided valley of the river Volturno and stem any possible help that could come from the territory of Sannio. Samnite garrison, conscious deception, could not do anything but fall back, being in strong numerical disadvantage.

So in the year 326 BC Naples joined securely to be part of the sphere of Roman influence, signing with them a favorable treaty of alliance. This action, together with the creation of Fregellae and the allocation of a Roman army in the valley of the Volturno, that is in full Samnite territory, constituted the cause of the collapse of the old treaty of 354 BC between the two peoples, the same confirmed and revised in 341 BC, and the subsequent start of a new phase of hostilities. The early war years, between 326 and 322 BC, passed between violent skirmishes and small battles in order to certify their positions, certainly in the territory of northern Campania between the lands of middle river Liri and middle Volturno river. Neither of the two armies clearly prevailed over the other. Worthy of note was the attempt made by the Samnites to block the only access that the Romans had to come into Campania from the north, from the area of Fundi and Gaeta. They were able to rout the Roman garrison and stood briefly in the area. Unfortunately, without proper tactical support they surrendered soon the position won.

THE CAUDINE FORKS

To put an end to this period of stalemate and to search for a mighty victory over the Samnites to bend them to surrender, exhausted also by the Samnites-based tactical war raids and violent rapids that not gave the opportunity to defend themselves adequately, in the year 321 BC Rome sent the consuls Titus Veturius Calvin and Spurius Postumius Albino, heads a strong army of 20,000 men in the area of the Samnites Caudinians to move away from conflict areas near the Campania and then go against Malies (Benevento), and then the Irpini, thus inflicting a heavy defeat the Samnites enough to induce them to sue for peace. Consequently, each console led his legion to Calatia where were supposed to move forward together towards Caudinians, bypassing the southern slope of Mount Taburno.

Meanwhile, the Samnites, watching the movements of the Roman legions from their fortifications, they were able to guess what were the intentions of the two Roman consuls. The head of the Samnite League at that time there was a "Meddix Tuticus" of great wit military Gavius Pontius, who immediately placed the Samnite army near a deep valley located along the axis of displacement of the Romans, blocking the exit to Caudium with huge stones and fallen trees. When both legions were entered into the valley, Pontius also obstructed the narrow entrance to the side of Calatia. The Romans were aware of the trap only when they saw all the surrounding heights controlled by the Samnites.

The vanguard and the rearguard Roman realized late that exits from the valley were obstructed. The shock was great when the night fell, the Romans found themselves surrounded by the fires of the camps adjacent enemies, formed by the "ndocce" (5), a sort of big torches that the Samnites were used in case of nocturnal movements and to illuminate camps. For several days they tried to open the street fighting, but were systematically discarded in the valley by the enemy troops. So the two consuls were aware that they have no more than surrender. This was the defeat of Caudine Forks, one of the most famous and yet the most elusive in the annals of the Roman history. Gavius Pontius was determined to exterminate legions stuck in the valley, so as to cause a heavy loss to Rome in terms of manpower and weaponry and thus represent the basis for a period of peace, after a

similar setback, Rome would definitely come down to more moderate counsels. But both meddix knows that his men closer was known that, once cut off the bulk of Roman military forces, would surely awakened outbreaks of insurrection of those Latin peoples subjugated by both Roman and Samnites forced a few years ago and with much difficulty. The official (Roman) history tells that both Gavius Pontius that his men repelled the fact of having to write a death so shameful to so many warriors. So they asked the advice of a "great" of Sannio, Herennius Pontius, father of actual Gavius Pontius and son of founder of Sannio, also called Gavius, famous and respected "Meddix Tuticus", a friend of Plato and the mathematician Archytas of Taranto. Now elderly, was conducted on the valley and after seeing the defeat of the Romans, he advised his son to let them go because that mortification would leave a big sign in the mind of those people. The stigma of ignominious release of two consuls with their legions to Rome was a major defeat for the deaths of so many warriors.

Gavius Pontius, also urged his men, he followed the advice of his father and released the Roman soldiers after they passed under a yoke of spears bare arms and tunic dresses alone (6). In support of this event was written, between the Samnites Meddix and consuls on behalf of Rome, a new peace treaty reiterated that twenty years before the Romans have broken. To ensure the signature and ratification of the treaty by the Roman Senate, 600 knights, the cream of the noble Roman youth, would be held until the proper outcome.

The consuls at once fled with their legions in friendly territory, returning with great sadness to Rome. That the treaty has been signed and that the hostages returned safely to Rome can be seen from five years of peace that followed the events of Caudine Forks. The spoils of war of the Samnites was enormous: over the paraphernalia of two Roman legions with horses and carts, even a peace treaty very favorable. Had to be pretty difficult for Rome to go back immediately that this story imprinted china, especially in the soul rather than in substance.

But the Romans did build on this loss by improving the equipment and tactics of war of their armies. Immediately adopt the "pilum", that is the "saunia" of the Samnites, the short spear and shield oval tapered at the top used in war, the "scutum". They adopted their techniques of guerrilla and counter them, using the cavalry in a better way. Studied their tactics of conflict in the open space and improved it, streamlining the legions and making them faster and stronger. From the political side, many were the allies and diplomatic contacts made between the Romans and the people of Apulia and other small peoples bordering the Sannio. After five years the Romans, this time more aggressive than ever, it reappeared again in front of the Samnites.

Even the Samnites for their part, in Caudina Peace, is anxious to reinforce their positions. Consolidated their control on the left bank of the river Liri, that concern them, and lent their support to the anti-Roman movement that ferment in the region to the right of the river. Improve the situation in central and southern Campania checking Nola, Nuceria Alfaterna, Stabia, Pompeii and Herculaneum. Also had diplomatic contacts with the Etruscans and the neighboring population to the territories north of Rome.

NOTES

(1) Caudina Valley and Sant'Agata dei Goti in particular of the "Charter of the royal hunts of Terra di Lavoro and their adjacent" designed by Giovanni Antonio Rizzi Zannoni in the year 1784. Drawing with black ink, watercolor, preserved in the Biblioteca Nazionale in Naples.

(2) Table with the "Offering Caudina Valley from the side of Sannio", designed by D. de Laurentiis, engraved by C. Pignataro and contained in the volume of Francis Daniel "The Caudine Forks Illustrated" Published in Caserta in 1778 and kept in the Biblioteca Nazionale in Naples.

(3) Engraving from the book of Pasquale Albino "Historical Records and Monuments of Sannio Pentro and Frentania" - Campobasso Tip. De Nigris 1879.

(4) Red arrows indicate the way that the two Roman consuls had planned to travel to get to Malies (Benevento) and in part have covered. The yellow lines indicate the positions that the Samnites occupied the heights overlooking the narrow passage of Caudio, waiting that both consular armies are sent into the valley.

(5) The "NDOCCE" were major flares, some even more than three meters long, consisting of a beam (conical) with large wood, inside, mixed with dried bushes of broom twigs and dry leaves, mixed with resin of trees, compressed to well so as to burn slowly. Their fire was powerful and the light was visible from afar.
Even today, in the town of Agnone (IS), on the eve of Christmas and, for some time now, even on December 8 (Immaculate Conception) each year is celebrated as "NDOCCIATA", the festival of light with a clear Samnite derivation, where a procession of a hundred or more men wearing the traditional black cloak with a series of "ndocce" arranged in a fan and brought to the shoulder, parade through the city's historic center.
The current 'ndocce are composed of a wooden fir with dried gorse burning evolve into a strong light. The ceremony is very suggestive and culminates with a big bonfire where they burned all the "ndocce" who marched. This ceremony was presented and celebrated at the Vatican before the Holy Pope in St. Peter's Square on 8 December 1996.

(6) The monthly newspaper FOCUS of May 2001 in Review Categories "Questions and Answers" is published the answer to the question "Why are said to pass under Caudine Forks?".
The Editor of monthly replies: "The sentence is to suffer a grave humiliation or a test mortifying's. Way of saying dates back to ancient Rome, namely the Second Samnite War. In 321 BC the men of the Roman army, defeated in the valley of Caudio near modern Benevento, suffered the mortification of having to spend disarmed under a yoke of spears, before the Samnite winners ... ...As well as moral, punishment was also physical: for the Romans, consuls in the head, were sodomized.
The incident appears to be the origin of the phrase that combines the luck with the size of seats: those who had a big anus suffered less violence from Samnites and was therefore more successful than others. This last part is not supported by historical sources, but is based on the phrase reported by Livy affirm that the Romans were humiliated both physically and in spirit.

(7) The illustration is taken from: "Enzo Biagi - History of Rome" - Edizioni Mondadori De Agostini - Novara 1988